Tutorial Presentation - Cyberstalking: gender and computer ethics

Hey guys,

Sorry this is so late. I had the whole thing written up and blogger logged me out for no apparent reason and deleted my most recently saved copy! I want to scream! That's the last time I ever use Safari! Argh!

But here it is. If I suddenly remember if I left something out that was in here earlier, I will update - so keep your eyes peeled!

Cyberstalking: Gender and Computer Ethics - Alison Adam

Alison Adam's argues that feminist theory and ethics should be adapted to computer ethics on the basis that men and women have different online experiences due to:

•access: men have greater access to computers and the internet than women
•gender and/or power imbalence (latent or not): women and minority groups are usually targeted by the mainstream.

Feminist Ethics:

• rethinks traditional ethics that 'devalue the moral experience of women.' (text p. 212)

• Traditional Western Ethics fail women in five ways:

1) shows little concern for women's interests and rights as opposed to men's.

2) it dismisses the problems that arise in so-called private world, the realm in which women cook, clean, and care for the you, the old, and the sick.

3)it suggests, that on average, women are not as morally developed as men.

4) it overvalues culturally masculine traits like independence, autonomy, separation, mind, reason, culture, transcendence, war, and death, and undervalues culturally feminine traits like interdependence, community, connection, body, emotion, nature, immanence, peace, and life

5) it favors culturally masculine ways of moral reasoning that emphasize rules, universality, and impartiality over culturally feminine ways of moral reasoning that emphasize relationships, particularity, and partiality [1]

How feminist ethics would work online:

• The community(feminist) rather than the individual(traditional): this would provide a safety net for minority groups who do not have the confidence to defend themselves from online abuse. Eg. A cyberstalker attacking an individual is one thing, attacking a whole community is something else and a far more daunting project. Thus the internet would be seen as safe/safer - as opposed to now where it is considered dangerous (that we worry about identity theft and giving away personal details online is proof of this)

• Following from above: the internet becomes more user friendly, thus there is a profit to be made as well ;)

• Feminist ethics exposes power imbalances. People do not need to fear retribution for speaking out against the mainstream. In a sense the internet becomes more "democratic"

Case studies of harassment:

• Stephanie Brail, dating back to 1993: for defending another women who had been verbally attacked by a number of men for views on an alternative women's publication. Stephanie's name and details were posted on sex chat rooms and people began to contact her. The perp. was eventually traced.

• Jayne Hitchcock, 2000, had people posting claims that she was a pornographer on the net. The perp left sexually explicit messages that lead to people contacting her or coming to her house.


Questions (more to come when I remember them):

In your opinion is it possible for feminist (sorry, I am aware it said computer before, my bad) ethics to be incorporated into the net? Has it already been done? Or is the internet 'too far gone' down the road of western ethics to change?



[1] Tong, R. and Williams, N. Feminist Ethics (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) (29th November 2006), plato.stanford.edu, available at: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-ethics/

in response to Therese and Nessi's posts....

JenniCAM:
In response to the line in Nessi’s post, “According to Jimroglou, JenniCAM destabilizing the traditional and tacit lines of the public and private self is another constituent of being a cyborg”, I don’t believe this is the case- yes she is presenting us with a view of her private life, but I am cynical about how ‘naturally’ she acted during the streaming- it is like Big Brother- I don’t believe that what you see is anything like how these people truly behave in their own homes. JenniCAM is a production. While she purports to be opening a window into her life, the very act of creating an online program about it turns into an exercise, a constructed narrative.
Also, in response to the line “Jimroglou also claimed that JenniCAM forced the term ‘voyeur’ to be re-evaluated. This is shown by Jenni holding the role of an object yet refusing the traditional illustration of objectification” I disagree- I don’t believe that Jenni, or any other person in that position has any control over how she will be viewed- objectification is not something that the ‘object’ can generally control. I cannot agree with Jimroglou when he says that she is ‘refusing objectification’ when the program showed Jenni getting dressed, having intercourse etc... This would have attracted men (and women) to watch, and I am certain she would have been objectified to some degree.

Cyber stalking:
I think the questions Therese posted are interesting, especially those in regards to how we behave online. I wrote above that I consider JenniCAM to be a program- a constructed narrative, that doesn’t entirely bear relation to her real life. I think the same idea applies to interfaces like Facebook or Myspace. My own profile is a carefully constructed presentation to highlight aspects of my life/personality that I think are favourable, and I dare anyone to say that their page is any different! I do not consciously construct my page like this, but it is natural to want to ‘put your best foot forward’.
In this respect, I think that the notion of Facebook-stalking, and invasion of privacy, while disturbing, are not the end of the world. The whole notion of Facebook is self-publicity. To complain about the invasion of privacy that it involves, is to try to have it both ways. If you have concerns about your information being widespread- don’t post it!!

Hope you found my comments useful!

Cyber Stalking

Just checking that everyone knows, this blog is assessed, and we are required to write about 300words per week. I was reading through the other tutorial blogs and Katherine from Thursday at 5pm posted a good set of questions in relation to the cyber-stalking text. I thought I'd borrow them and see if they can get some conversation started here too.


SO: some questions to get the ball rolling!
Does the internet need regulation?
What sort of laws (if any) are appropriate for a medium whose very foundation is in its capacity to diminish space and create a global online community for sharing and interacting?

How do you feel YOU interact online: are you comfortable in an online environment, do you think the fact that you have a relative degree of anonymity online changes your interaction (if any) with other users online?

FACEBOOK: friend or foe? Is Facebook a total invasion of privacy? And again harking back to the “online identities” concept, what facets of your persona do you choose to convey online on your profile? Do we have an “ethic of care” for ourselves, our friends, and other internet users? Or is this an impossible concept in an online community of millions? How do the internet communities and relationships we form online reflect those we make in real life?Happy blogging!
~ posted by Katherine2

Webliography - Caitlin (Question 2)

Images of artificially created beings have been widespread throughout science fiction texts, challenging ideas of what it means to be human. The notion of the cyborg has reflected cultural preoccupations with overcoming the limitations and flaws of the corporeal human body as well as anxieties about technology undermining the uniqueness of embodied human experience. The following sources each address the question of whether or not being human transcends the capabilities of the body.


1. Brain, Marshall. (2005). The Day You Discard Your Body. http://marshallbrain.com/discard1.htm (Accessed 26th August 2008)

In this essay Marshall Brain argues that human beings are trapped in our bodies and that, contrary to depictions of the body in science fiction, in the future we will discard our bodies and live in a virtual world. Brain’s argument is based on the assumption that what makes us human is contained within the brain and the fragility and mortality of the human body limits the potential capabilities of the brain. This essay draws mainly on examples from popular culture rather than any academic theories and is self-published, rather than being linked to a more credible website or database. It contains many unsubstantiated claims and it is difficult to separate the author’s opinion from researched evidence. However it offers an interesting point of view that is particularly relevant to this essay question and is another example of the body being viewed and portrayed as limiting to human capability.


2. Hacking, Ian. (1998). “Canguilman amid the Cyborgs” Economy and Society 27 (2) 202-216. http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.library.uwa.edu.au/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=6832633&site=ehost-live (Accessed 27th August 2008)

Hacking’s paper discusses various theoretical perspectives on the cyborg. Since its inception, the notion of the cyborg has been reinterpreted and reinvented throughout the academic and popular cultural spheres. Hacking focuses specifically on the essay Machine and Organism by Georges Canguilhem who argues that tools and machines are extensions of the body. Because Hacking’s paper discusses many different and often oppositional theoretical positions on the cyborg and its implications, it is difficult to decipher a central argument. This paper would be useful in answering the essay question as it thoroughly explores the main theories and theorists involved in analysis of the relationship between humans and machines and maps the evolution of notions of the cyborg from Clines and Kline (1960), to science fiction, to Donna Haraway’s Cyborg Manifesto (1985).

3. Rothstein, Edward. (1996). “Technology: CONNECTIONS; Cyborgs 'R' (Almost) Us, or how we may be turning into a multimedia experience”. New York Times, January 8, Late Edition (East Coast). http://proquest.umi.com.ezproxy.library.uwa.edu.au/pqdweb?did=673534981&sid=1&Fmt=3&clientId=20923&RQT=309&VName=PQD (Accessed 27th August 2008).

Edward Rothstein’s article for the online edition of The New York Times provides a brief overview of the emerging significance of the cyborg in contemporary culture. The article discusses the prevalence of the cyborg in popular culture and the growing amount of academic discussion of cyborgs in feminism and politics. Rothstein raises ideas about the ever-growing relationship between technology and the body and its implications for the future. While this is not a scholarly article, it is a valuable text for analysis as it suggests that anxieties about technology are not confined to the academic arena. Rothstein’s article is an example of another text reinforcing the notion that being human transcends physical embodiment.

4. Shabot, Sara Cohen. (2006) “Grotesque Bodies: A Response to Disembodied Cyborgs”. Journal of Gender Studies. 15 (3) 223-235. http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.library.uwa.edu.au/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=24905686&site=ehost-live(accessed 27th August 2008)

In her paper Grotesque Bodies: A Response to Disembodied Cyborgs, Sara Cohen Shabot argues that the notion of the cyborg is problematic as it idealises the body as hypersexual, flawless and transcendent of the weaknesses of the corporeal human body. She argues that corporeal existence and carnal experiences are what make us human and that the prediction of a cyborgian future in science fiction texts borders on fascism. Shabot argues that the “grotesque body” is a more useful way to disrupt dichotomous ways of understanding the body. Shabot’s paper is particularly useful to this essay question as it provides an opposing view to the argument that the body limits our potential capabilities and experiences as human beings.

5. Shanken, Edward. (2005) “Hot to Bot: Pygmalion’s Lust, the Maharal’s Fear, and the Cyborg future of Art”. Technoetic Arts: A Journal of Speculative Research 3 (1) 43-55. http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.library.uwa.edu.au/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=17287387&site=ehost-live (Accessed 28th August 2008)

In his paper, Hot to Bot: Pygmalion’s Lust, the Maharal’s Fear, and the Cyborg future of Art, Edward Shanken explores the portrayal of robots and other artificially created beings in art and how this portrayal reflects the anxieties and preoccupations of the society in which they were created. With reference to representations in myths such as Pygmalion and the Golem through to more contemporary artistic and filmic texts, Shanken argues that the desire to artificially create life is fundamental to human nature, but that the power to turn a robot into a fully fledged human being is not within human capability. Shanken also argues that over time, artistic representations of the relationship between humans and technology have shifted from a portrayal of human control and status over the technology we create to a more fluid relationship where the difference between human being and robot is less distinct and suggestive of a cyborgian future. This paper would be particularly useful as it addresses the question, draws on other academic analysis and also discusses many other texts which raise issues regarding technology and the body.


Each of these sources addresses the idea that to be human transcends the physical body with varying degrees of utility. Two of the articles are not from scholarly sources, however they relate well to the question at hand and compliment the arguments made by the academic papers.

Webliography

WOMN2205 WEBLIOGRAPHY- Anna Hartley

'The figure of the cyborg is deeply implicated in western culture's fear of the monstrous other, which itself is a deeply gendered anxiety. Discuss'

Fear of the ‘other’ is an age old one, with new forms of the ‘other’ being constructed throughout history. This fear of other is also a deeply gendered issue, tied up with fear of the feminine. My webliography, which concerns itself primarily with the cyborg body, spans from discussions about the feminist theory of the monster Frankenstein, written decades ago, through to a modern websites devoted to a symbiotic study of art and critical theory, in medienkunstnetz.

1. Donna Haraway- “A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century”

I have included this source because it would be a large oversight to exclude this seminal text from any discussion about cyborgs.

2. Leslie Swartz and Brian Watermeyer -“Cyborg anxiety: Oscar Pistorius and the boundaries of what it means to be human”

This article discusses the notion of the disabled in society as being viewed as somehow other than human. Oscar Pistorius is a disabled athlete who was prevented from competing alongside able-bodied athletes, because of fear that he would have an super-human, unfair advantage in the competition.

3. Yvonne Volkart- “Monstrous Bodies: The Disarranged Gender Body as an Arena for Monstrous Subject Relations”

A very comprehensive and intersting online resource, with articles on various topics concerned with the body. This article is based on the premise that the cyborg is so monstrous because it reflects the monstrosoty of the society which created it. “The cyborg body is always an effect and symptom body of the neoliberal information society. It is its product and its symbol, its sabotaging traversal and alternative conception of the subject“.
This article contains chapter links, the most useful to this topic in my opinion being ‘The Monstrosity of the Endlessly Interfaceable, Digital Body’.

4. Katherine Swan- “Feminism and Education in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein”

This is a very interesting article which deals with the notion of the Frankenstein novel being a deeply gendered text. Swan posits that like Frankenstein must self-educate, women in the time of Mary Shelley had to do the same. Also that the “monster destroys on weak women, representing education’s destruction of female inferiority”.It basically links the age-old theme of fear of ‘other’ which Frankenstein epitomises, with feminist theory.
However, while the article reads well, the webpage it is hosted by is not a professional journal, but a user-contributed site. Thus, any articles referenced from the site must be carefully read to asses their academic value.

5. Judith Halberstam- “Automating Gender: Postmodern Feminism in the Age of the Intelligent Machine”

In this article, Halberstam argues that cyborgs have provided a new platform upon which to argue that “gender and its representations are technological products. In a sense, cybernetics simultaneously maps out the terrain for both postmodern discussions of the subject in late capitalism and feminist debates about technology, postmodernism and gender”.


In conclusion, I have found the above online resources very interesting and certainly useful in facilitating a good essay about the topic. I did find it difficult to sort through all the flotsam that is on the internet to come to suitable resources, but once I was on the right track I was pleasantly surprised at how much critical theory there is on this topic. This was an interesting assignment and I enjoyed researching it.


BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Donna Haraway, ‘A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century’, The European Graduate School, 1991,
http://www.egs.edu/faculty/haraway/haraway-a-cyborg-manifesto.html (accessed 03/09/08)

Leslie Swartz and Brian Watermeyer , ‘Cyborg anxiety: Oscar Pistorius and the boundaries of what it means to be human’, informaworld.com, March 2008, http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/section?content=a791124509&fulltext=713240928, (accessed 03/09/08)

Yvonne Volkart, ‘Monstrous Bodies: The Disarranged Gender Body as an Arena for Monstrous Subject Relations’, medienkunstnetz, http://www.medienkunstnetz.de/themes/cyborg_bodies/monstrous_bodies/, (accessed 03/09/08)

Katherine Swan, ‘Feminism and Education in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein’, Associated Content, Feb 2005, http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/13718/feminism_and_education_in_mary_shelleys.html?cat=38 (accessed 03/09/08)

Judith Halberstam, ‘Automating Gender: Postmodern Feminism in the Age of the Intelligent Machine, JStor, 1991,http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici=0046-3663(199123)17%3A3%3C439%3AAGPFIT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-M, (accessed 03/09/08)

Tutorial Presentation

For this week's tutorial presentation, I will be covering the article A Camera with a View: JenniCAM, Visual Representation and Cyborg Subjectivity written by Krissi M. Jimroglou. The article basically focused on JenniCAM, an online ‘homecam’ phenomenon that occurred in 1996. Jennifer Ringley, or more commonly known as Jenni, started a website dedicated to nothing else but daily pictures of herself – all captured by a digital camera mounted on top of her computer. The webpage refreshed automatically every few minutes displaying a new picture for viewers. In other words, one was able to view and study Jennifer Ringley’s daily life and her every move through digital images. In the span of the JenniCAM phenomenon, Jenni included nudity and also pictures of her sexual activities. However, it was stated that most of her pictures were not particularly exciting. The pictures took account of Jenni occupied in a mundane routine of working on her computer, checking emails or talking on the phone. Nevertheless, JenniCAM brought upon a large number of fans constantly hooked to their computers for the next refresh.

In the article, Jimroglou basically made a point that Jenni could be seen as a ‘cyborg subject’. He also addressed several issues such as hybridity, perversity and the psychoanalytic readings of JenniCAM in regards to the matter. I shall focus on the issue of hybridity between human and computer and also the perversity aspect that comes along with the concept of JenniCAM.

Hybridity
For the record in this class, in case anyone of you had forgotten, Donna Haraway defined a cyborg as ‘a cybernetic organism, a hybrid of machine and organism’. Jimroglou suggested that through the integration of the human body and technology, Jenni could be the prime example of a cyborg. She was quoted as being not ‘fully human nor fully machine yet constituted, in part, by both’. In fact, the term JenniCAM itself showed the hybridity between human (Jenni) and machine (CAM). From the reading, I found it interesting that this notion only worked if Jenni is sitting at the computer. Jimroglou proposed it as a fusion between human and machine. In other words, once she moves away to the background and reveals her body, she is immediately distinguished as human again. In my opinion, I think she still could be categorized as a cyborg whether she sat in front of the computer or not. When a person views the picture of Jenni, say, wearing her socks, she is still seen to be a virtual image on a screen that has no physical presence. The uncertainty of the boundaries of what it means to be human remains. What is your take on this?

Perversity
According to Jimroglou, JenniCAM destabilizing the traditional and tacit lines of the public and private self is another constituent of being a cyborg. I would have to say that it is not easy to find someone who portrays his/her life on the World Wide Web 24/7. The article suggests that the whole concept of JenniCAM is undoubtedly perverse for an average college student, or anyone else for that matter. All in all, Jenni broke down the cultural norm which had people’s eyes peeled for more (quite literally, I bet.). In addition, Jimroglou also claimed that JenniCAM forced the term ‘voyeur’ to be reevaluated. This is due to the fact that JenniCAM portrayed a visual of something that was not meant to be seen or scrutinized but yet at the same time, Jenni was aware of being watched and wanted people to tune in. In relation to the perversity of the concept, I may have encountered that streak of narcissism myself a few times while webcamming with my friends back home. I’m cringing inside just thinking about it in retrospect but at that point of time, it happened quite… naturally. Ooh yeah, I’m gazing wistfully out of my window, hurry, look at me while I’m acting like I don’t know you’re looking. Anyway, like what Jimroglou suggested, the idea of JenniCAM evolved the relationship between the camera, the photographer, and the viewer. This is shown by Jenni holding the role of an object yet refusing the traditional illustration of objectification. Also, Jenni being a woman also brought forth a few points about gender relations. While I understand that the notion of voyeur could have been implemented by the preoccupation with the female body, I can't help but wonder if the 'homecam' phenomenon would be as attention-grabbing and cultivate the same degree of voyeurism if it was introduced to the world by a man.

FYI, JenniCAM has been long defunct. Rumour has it that she stopped because her boyfriend wasn't too comfy with the idea of being watched 24/7. Can't blame the guy, really. Anyway, I'll end it here with a Youtube video of Jenni appearing on the Late Show with David Letterman. Enjoy! :)

Hey Everybody

Hey all,
Since I didn't get the opportunity to introduce myself online previously, I will do so hastily now.
My main attraction to blogs has come about through my love of fashion. Fashion photography, particularly that of Street Style has really become popular in recent years. I even tried to start my own, which I think is hot linked through my name on this blog. My favourite such sites are the Sartorialist and the Facehunter which I recommend to all the fashion lovers in this tutorial.

Also, I have participated a lot on fashion forums which I guess takes on a slightly similar form to a blog. I'm interested in the way these sites are policed and the online communities they create.

But anyway, this looks to be an exciting few weeks as long as I remember to keep posting.
Regards,
Eva

Human limits

1. The Visible Human Project: Life and death in cyberspace – Catherine Waldby
This article is a valuable resource for understanding the Visible Human Project, and the questions it raises about the limits of being human, and human identity. The author explores the ambiguity of the identity status of the visible male and female through the ideas of life after death, and the boundary between the real and virtual worlds. She questions how these two people should be viewed in light of their translation from physical reality into a dataset on a computer, accessible to anyone with the Internet. While the article is fairly concise and does not delve too far into these issues, it is a perfect starting point for beginning to understand the methodology and purpose of the Visible Human Project, along with its significance in terms of pushing the limits of what it means to be human. The questions raised by the article are useful for working out where to focus further research for the essay question.

2. Constructions and reconstructions of self in virtual reality: Playing in the MUDs – Sherry Turkle
Sherry Turkle’s article talks about the construction of self in the virtual world, specifically in MUDs. Her research, which includes several case studies of MUD players, raises important questions about the limits of human identity. By focussing on the effects of simulation of identity on a person’s identity in ‘real’ life, Turkle’s article helps to explore the limits of human experience. She shows the way in which a person’s ability to create a whole new identity in the virtual world, and their experience of this identity often results in them re-evaluating their actions in the ‘real’ world. One disadvantage to the article is that it was written in 1994, and with the rapid pace of technological change, much of the technology has significantly advanced since then. However, most of the ideas in the article are still relevant to today’s technology. The relevance of the article to the essay question lies in its explorations of the boundaries between a person’s real life and virtual identities, and how this affect’s society’s ideas of sense of self.

3. Augmentation, symbiosis, transcendence: technology and the future(s) of human identity – Walter Truett Anderson
Anderson discusses in his article the rapid pace of technological change and the possible effects this may have on society’s ideas of human nature. By using science fiction as a focus, he pulls out three main themes: augmentation, symbiosis and transcendence, of where the human species may be headed in the future, and comparing this to actual technology, he analyses the effects this may have. While several aspects of this article are mainly hypothesising, Anderson also raises some important questions about how technology is affecting the way society defines being human. By looking into how the human body is evolving through technology, the article shows changing attitudes about the limits of being human. Through its use of science fiction to illustrate the different types of human ‘enhancement’, this article would be useful in answering the essay question in its exploration of the relationships between the body and the idea of humanity.

4. New technology vs. human identity: postmodernism and a new identity? – Tejumade Aderele
While not a scholarly article, this blog post is an interesting discussion of the effects of biotechnology on human identity. The author questions the boundaries between physical and emotional identities and bodies, and how this affects interaction in both real and virtual worlds, eventually coming to the conclusion that human identity is enhanced by technology, rather than threatened. Whether or not this is the case is debatable, but by bringing in ideas from scholars such as Baudrillard and Marx, this article is useful in looking into the fusion of man and machine and how this affects the idea of being human, particularly in its examination of how identity is formed and the relationships between the ‘real’ and the ‘virtual’.

5. Human Remains: Identity Politics in the Face of Biotechnology – Annette Burfoot
Annette Burfoot’s article takes a different approach by looking at the importance of the body as the site of identity through a feminist viewpoint. It talks about the different effects science fiction has on society’s view of humans, and questions ideas about post-humanism. Burfoot discusses the body as a site of social construction and this can be useful towards the discussion of how the body affects the idea of the essence of being human. This article draws from a lot of different theories and this can be difficult to read through as it is fairly dense in several aspects. However, after reading it a few times the author’s points become clearer, and she makes several relevant arguments about the posthuman and what it means for human identity, as well as the role of the body.

Webliography

These five online sources have been critically analysed for their potential usefulness as references for an essay on the topic of the idea of the cyborg and how it has been used in feministic discourse since Donna Haraway's groundbreaking “Cyborg Manifesto” was published. They have been assessed on several aspects, including relevance to the essay topic, tone, context, and the degree to which their academic usefulness can be verified – for example, the homepage on which the page is hosted can give clues as to how valuable it is as an academic resource.

Source 1: Donna Haraway, “A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century”
(accessed 27-8-08)

This source, being mentioned in the guiding question, would facilitate a clear understanding of the ideas that need to be used for a comprehensive essay on this topic. It consists of the entirety of Haraway's Cyborg Manifesto, complete with page numbers for easy referencing and the journal in which it was originally published. The essay examines the idea of the cyborg in the twentieth century, its effects on modern ideas of humanity and sexuality and how it affects and has been affected by politics as well as the development of science and technology that led to the development of the cyborg concept – the blurred boundary between animal and machine. Its main focus, however, is the cyborg's relation to feministic thought. The document is also part of the Stanford University site, meaning that its value as an academic source can be verified.

Source 2:
Yousuf Dhamee, “Cyborgs and Feminists”
(accessed 27/8/08)

This piece references Haraway's Manifesto and gives a simplified version of its main ideas as relating to feminism: how the concept can be empowering to women, and as “a tool with which to combat the male/female binary that she finds oppressive.” Though only a few hundred words long, the source contains valuable information for an essay-writer who may not have read or understood Haraway's work in its entirety, as well as some useful references to images of the feministic cyborg in popular culture and science-fiction which the writer can also refer to to further their argument. Its brevity does reduce its usefulness, as does the fact that while it originates from an academic website and references other sources, its authorship cannot be verified. However, it closely relates to the topic of the essay and could be a good place to begin gathering ideas and pointers to other sources, if not to use directly in the essay.

Source 3:
Anna Marie Balsamo, “Technologies of the Gendered Body” – Google Book Search
(accessed 27/8/08)
Though this version of the book is not complete, it does contain the chapter most useful to a writer of this essay: “Reading Cyborgs, Writing Feminism.” The parts shown include explanations of feminist notions of the “discourse of the body” and other parts of the book refer to Haraway and her Manifesto.

Source 4:
Judith Halberstam, “Automating Gender: Postmodern Feminism in the Age of the Intelligent Machine”
(accessed 27/8/08)
An article published in the Feminist Studies journal in 1991. It requires a Questia account to be read in full in digital form, however it deals with gendered discourses and their relationship to the cyborg or robot in a concise 22 pages. Its origin in an academic journal shows it can be used as a legitimate academic resource and it appears to closely relate to the topic of the essay.

Source 5:
Sharon Sharp, “Fembot Feminism: The Cyborg Body and Feminist Discourses in The Bionic Woman”
(accessed 27/8/08)
The article “discusses the conflict between feminism and representations of femininity in the television program The Bionic Woman.” It is a good example of the cyborg placed in the context of popular culture while juxtaposing it with feminist opinions. I found the source through Academic Search Premier and it was first published in the journal Women's Studies in October 2007. It also has affiliations with California State University – all of which signify its value as an academic resource.

Finding these five sources was not easy, possibly due to the abstract and slightly obscure nature of the topic, necessitating several attempts on different search engines and databases with different keywords. Many of the sources I located can also be found in hard copy, but I treated them as online sources for the purposes of this assignment. Having assessed each one for suitability as an academic resource and relevance to the essay topic I am confident that they would serve as useful, legitimate resources for this hypothetical essay.

The virtual body and the cyborized mind

“From Frankenstein to the Visible Human Project, the body is continually reinterpreted as a limit to what it means to be human.”

In this day and age the definition of ‘human’ is changing at a rapid rate. Through technology the human form has been augmented and enhanced in so many ways that it begs the question of where human stops and technology begins. To examine this idea I have to first address how we define human. Is human defined through a body, through emotions or is it through intelligence? If a machine possesses all these qualities can they too be considered human? By examining the implications of technology and its effects on the body and mind (which are undeniably linked) and then moving on to study the evolution of man to machine and machine to man I found that the line that divides human and machine is not as defined as we might think.

Over the Horizon: Potential Impact of Emerging Trends in Information and Communication Technology on Disability Policy and Practice

This executive summary follows the emerging trends of technology and its impact on people with disabilities. The summary covers how technology is evolving by becoming smaller and more powerful and explores new trends such as virtual reality/ies and intelligent assistance technology (AT). ‘A potential for new “intelligent AT” is emerging that was previously not possible. Translating and transforming technologies will be able to take information that is not perceivable or understandable to many with sensory or cognitive impairments, and render it into a form that they can use.’ However, while the summary looks at the potential new and more powerful technology can have, it also makes attention of issues, barriers and concerns regarding the pace and evolution of technology. The summary leads to the conclusion that technology generally favours the UN-impaired (whether mentally or physically) and people able to afford access to computers and the internet. Additionally the article voices concerns about the rapid mainstream turn over of a technology that mean neither assistive technology nor government policy can keep up with the ever changing pace. The summary goes on to list suggested actions that can/and should be taken to ease the stress and ensure fair access for disabled (physically, mentally, and financially) people.

Haptic Interfaces and Devices

This article covers the idea of Haptic devices, by using analogies of a computer, mouse and user to explain how the technology works, and its current and potential uses. Essentially Haptic devices operate by simulating feedback from a machine or computer to its user through touch. The low-end and most recognisable form of Haptic technology are game consuls and joysticks that vibrate in players hands. By simulating the forces of touch Haptic technology makes way for incredibly realistic virtual environments that can be used in fields such as education and training and medicine. When reading this article with the question of human limitation in mind, we can see how breakthroughs in Haptic technology could see the computer/machine becoming more and more integrated with the human body. Is it possible that one day computers and technology are no longer seen as tools, but some kind of extension of the human body? With the feedback design of Haptic technology, a computer can act as a fifth limb to the human body by crossing the boundary from virtual to physical by simulating the human nervous system like any other part of the body would.

Sony takes 3-D cinema directly to the brain

While short, this article from Times Online explores the possibility of creating a device that can transmit sensory data directly into the human brain. This means that people could watch movies or play video games without the need to interact with the physical world. ‘The first step towards a real-life version [of the Matrix], in which cyber-reality is projected into the brains of people via an electrode feed, could be just over the horizon.‘ The article claims that Sony is working on a theory in which Ultrasonic pulses to invoke a sensory response in the brain. This begs the question of how this technology could effect human lives if it was created. Could it be used for an ultra new style of video conferencing or perhaps like a telephone? And of course, it would make a huge impact in gaming and virtual realities. Would people shift into virtual spaces, and how real could they become if we could experience taste, smell, sound and visual stimuli with this technology?

How Exoskeletons Will Work.

This website has a fantastic overview of the exoskeleton idea. Most notably it is aided by pitchers and videos provided by DARPA, Discover Channel and Reuters. Of particular interest is the Land Warrior computer system video that is linked at the top of the ‘Morphing Man and Machine’ segment of the Bonsor’s article. The video examines the current Land Warrior technology that uses radio, live video and GPS to plot the location of a soldier, his comrades and enemy troops on the field. Additionally, the Land Warrior system can allow a soldier to operate weaponry without stepping in the line of fire to shoot – essentially the Land Warrior system enhances sight and hearing to allow weapons to become and extension of the human body. The exoskeleton article also has a variety of links to other similar articles on the website such as the SpringWalker Body Amplifier. However, while the article by Bonsor provides an excellent outline of what an exoskeleton is, how it augments the human form and technical challenges faced in the exoskeleton’s design, the information lacks some more complex detail of specific models and their exact capabilities and specs.

The Indimate Machine, Web Feature: Intelligent by Design

Scientific American covers a long article about A.I. and the challenges faced in developing Artificial Intelligence without getting too technical. It has several case studies of how different scientists have approached A.I. challenge. The article covers potential uses that A.I.’s could have in the future and where the technology is headed and its development. The article explains how simple things that we take for granted, such as ‘seeing, hearing and hand-eye coordination, were more difficult to write code for than the first A.I. programs [that played chess].’ It also covers some ethical and moral dilemmas and allows the reader to consider them. ‘Teams of robots […] could wage war, execute dangerous search and rescue operations, pick produce in the most efficient way, explore other planets, or even play games against teams of humans just for fun.’ While this seems perfectly innocent, the article provokes thought on the future ramifications that such a technology could have impact on how the human race defines human. If A.I. are human in all but body (i.e. not of flesh and blood), is it wrong to use them as expendable persons and war fodder?


Conclusion:

We are in the process of being assimilated. Human and machine can no longer be thought of as separate entities, but one and the same. Through the constant development and evolution of technology the human body can no longer be considered purely flesh and blood. Thus our ability to define ourselves by our bodies is lost. Should we then, relinquish our claims of humanity and consider ourselves machines? Or can we define our humanity through our ability to think and feel? What then of Artifical Intelligence? Ironically it is by agumenting the body with technology that humans could soon have the potentiual to separate mind from body by will alone. The possibilty that the human body could be lost all together suggests that with the current changes and evolution of technology there is no dividing limit to what is human and what is machine. The limit to being human is something that will continue to expand to encompass both humans and technology.

Bibliography

Bonsor, Kevin. ‘How Exoskeletons Will Work.’ HowStuffWorks.com, 07 February 2001. <http://science.howstuffworks.com/exoskeleton.htm> 17 August 2008

John R. Vaughn, ‘Over the Horizon: Potential Impact of Emerging Trends in Information and Communication Technology on Disability Policy and Practice’, National Council on Disability, December 19 2006, http://www.ncd.gov/, available at: <http://www.ncd.gov/newsroom/publications/2006/emerging_trends.htm> 25 August 2008

Hayward, Vincent. Astley, Oilver R. Cruz-Hernadez, Manuel. Grant, Danny and Robles-De-La-Torre, Gabreiel. ‘Haptic Interfaces and Devices’, Sensor Review, Vol. 24, No. 1, 2004, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, available online <http://www.roblesdelatorre.com/gabriel/VH-OA-MC-DG-GR-04.pdf> 22 August 2008

Horsnell, Michael. ‘Sony takes 3-D cinema directly to the brain’, The Times Online April 7, 2005,available at: <http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article378077.ece> 22 August 2008

Mitchell, Jacqueline S., The Indimate Machine, Web Feature: Intelligent by Design. Scientific American Frontiers, October 22, 2002, available at: <http://www.pbs.org/saf/1303/features/AI.htm> 25 August 2008

Annotated Webliography Q3

Question 3 : Judy Waczman argues that Donna Haraway's figure of the cyborg has taken on ‘a life of its own’ in popular culture, science fiction and academic writing. In what ways has it been taken up by feminists?

Many researchers have long debated Donna Haraway’s concept of the cyborg. I started my research on Haraway by looking it up on Wikipedia and found a lot of keywords such as cyber feminism, cyborg, gender and etc. Let me begin by first defining what a cyborg is in dictionary terms. It is a person whose physiological functioning is aided by or dependent upon a mechanical or electronic device. But according to Haraway’s term, she defines the cyborg as "a cybernetic organism, a hybrid of machine and organism, a creature of social reality as well as a creature of fiction"(CM, 149).

Below here are the following articles that helped with answering the guiding question that I found useful:

1. Krista Scott, "The Cyborg, the Scientist, the Feminist & Her Critic",

This is a very detailed reading on Haraway’s vision of the cyborg. It’s an interesting critique as the thoughts on the concept and in particular with Marxism theory. There are also problems of cyborg politics upon feminist identities; in which the author challenges some kind of self-adaptation.

2. Donna Haraway, "A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century," in Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature.

This essay showcases Haraway’s argument is introduced as "an effort to build an ironic political myth faithful to feminism, socialism, and materialism" (CM, 149). She claims blasphemy and irony as her vantage tools. Blasphemy invokes the seriousness of the stance she adopts, as well as her distancing from the moral majority without breaking with the idea of community and connectivity, and "irony is about contradictions that do not resolve into larger wholes, even dialectically, about the tension of holding incompatible things together because both or all are necessary and true... It is also a rhetorical strategy and a political method" (CM, 149).


3. Chela Sandoval, "New Sciences: Cyborg Feminism and the Methodology of the Oppressed." In The Cyborg Handbook, ed. Chris Hables Gray.

This article introduces some pretty good arguments and shows the disputes on Haraway’s concept of the cyborg and the ideas that follows it. Sandoval further develops Haraway’s notion and applies the cyborg metaphor for various marginalized groups in the States. The author considers the cyborg theory would also be fundamental for fields out of feminism. This example illustrates the fact that Haraways’s cyborg has taken a life of its own.


4. Steven Dixon, “Metal Gender”

This is an interesting piece that shows how the author disagrees with Haraway’s idea of the cyborg. The reading points out many factors such as Haraway’s ‘treatment of gender is self-contradictory and unconvincing’ from what has been written in the Manifesto. He then proposes ‘metal gender’ but not the ‘gender-blinded’ cyborg of Haraway as the cyborg imposes serious strains upon the binary classification system Bourdieu defines ("a fundamental principle of ... two complementary classes"), as well as on ideas of separations which operate within and against "the network of biological kinship".

5. Hari Kunzru, “You are a Cyborg”

This commentary by Hari Kunzru discusses the notion of the cyborg based on Haraway's ‘Cyborg Manifesto’. Feminists everywhere have grasped on the prospects that both men and women can all be restructured if they are not normal but are constructed, like a cyborg.


In conclusion, having done a lot of research on this topic has been a great introduction into understanding feminism, cyborgs and so much more. It definitely has revealed a lot in the overall feminist thinking on Donna Haraway's concept of the cyborg. However, it is still very highly-debatable but no doubt; there has been heaps of significant findings and an eye-opener to Haraway’s figure of the cyborg.


Bibliography:


Scott, Krista (1997). The Cyborg, the Scientist, the Feminist & Her Critic.
The Feminist eZine - Modern Feminism
http://www.feministezine.com/feminist/philosophy/cyborg-scientist-feminist.html

Haraway, Donna (1991). "A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century," in Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature.
http://www.egs.edu/faculty/haraway/haraway-a-cyborg-manifesto.html

Sandoval, Chela (1995). "New Sciences: Cyborg Feminism and the Methodology of the Oppressed." In The Cyborg Handbook, ed. Chris Hables Gray. New York: Routledge.
http://www.stumptuous.com/comps/sandoval.html

Dixon, Steve (2003). ‘Metal Gender’.
http://www.ctheory.net/articles.aspx?id=384

Kunzru, Hari (1994). “You are Cyborg”, Wired Magazine, 5.02,
http://www.wired.com/wired/archives/5.02/ffharaway_pr.html

assignment 1 - guiding question 2

2. “From Frankenstein to the Visible Human Project, the body is continually reinterpreted as a limit to what it means to be a human.” Discuss critically.
To discuss and address this question critically, the response would likely have to address several important questions…

Does the act of radically exceeding the basic capabilities of the human body make a person less human? How has the body been continually reinterpreted, and in the eyes of society, has ‘what it means to be human’ changed? Is modern medicine and science taking humanity to posthumanity? Is it possible to be human without a body? Through transhumanism, does mankind risk losing it’s humanity entirely?

These are all questions that flash into my mind, and are ones which I would hope to investigate inside an actual response to the essay question. Obviously, this would require detailed research into the range of topics surrounding trans/post/humanism, identity and technology. The following are five different sources that I would likely use to aid and support my critical discussion of the question.

Nick Bostrom appeared frequently in my search for high quality research, and for good reason. His paper, In Defence of Posthuman Dignity, evaluates the arguments between transhumanists and bioconservatives in fairly great detail, while still using clear and easily understood language. It underlines the difficulties faced by transhumanists in making the argument that becoming cyborgs/post human is not an attack, but rather is ‘compatible and complementary’ to humanity. Sources are like these are invaluable because so often others appear to use difficult and complicated language in their discussion to appear more sophisticated. The source is of scholarly origin and is of a high standard, featuring a detailed reference list.

K. Mark Smith has written an interesting paper that confronts three popular arguments against posthuman enhancements, while noting the pitfalls of these arguments and essentially providing posthuman counter-counter arguments. This is important in the critical response to the statement as a person needs to have an idea of several different arguments to make a fair response. Smith’s engagement of those arguments makes it particularly valuable to my engagement of the essay. Of similar style to Bostrom’s article, it is written in relatively clear language, which is so essential in opening the debate to a wide audience and keeping the potentially complicated arguments simple. Smith’s paper is also well sourced and of scholarly origin, confirming it as a high value source.

Anthony Tongen writes an interesting article on biological computers and if they will ever advance to the stage of being considered human. Tongen has made the point that should scientists accurately ‘map’ the neural and chemical processes of the brain, the technology already exists to build computers operating the same processes. Clearly this article would be a valuable source in responding to the essay question because it helps raise the point that, at least physically, even the most advanced parts of the human body will likely ‘soon’ be able to be reproduced in computers. Will this lead to the creation of a ‘human’ AI? Probably not, given the difficult ethics, but the source is still valuable in exploring these issues. Tongen’s article is not perfect however, as there are some elements that lower the value of the source. The source is becoming dated, being around five years old. Furthermore, Tongen does not include an extensive bibliography in his article, referencing only a few sources.

Andy Miah’s paper argues that transhumanism has so far lacked mainstream support not because it isn’t applicable, but because of the difficulty of applying it in our cautious technological society. He goes on to make that point that the one area in which it has been acceptable in society so far is professional sport. This is important because it raises the point that the nature of elite sports is to push (and perhaps go beyond) the capabilities of the human body. What then, when athletes are no longer entirely human? This paper is clearly of relevance to the essay statement and being of a well-researched scholarly nature, is a high value source.

Although Daniel Nalesnik is not a fully accomplished academic, his paper is still well researched and quite useful in critically responding to the essay question. Naelsnik the views and opinions of several prominent thinkers in the area of posthumanity, such as Fukuyama, Clark, Brooks, McKibbin and Kurzweil. This paper is a great starting point to discover what are the major concerns and themes surrounding posthumanism are, which is of relevance to ‘what it means to be human’. His paper is well sourced and hosted on an academic website, lending it credibility.

Hopefully from the brief webliography above, one can see that any essay critically addressing the statement that ‘From Frankenstein to the Visible Human Project, the body is continually reinterpreted as a limit to what it means to be human’ would be well placed to make a reasonable response. Though I have noted a general swing towards transhumanist views in my sources, the sources above are fairly balanced themselves, making this a smaller problem. If there wasn’t the limit of 5 sources available online, I would have liked to include more sources from the humanist point of view. As it stands, I believe this webliography is a good base from which to firstly form a response, and secondly use as a base for further reading, such that one might be able to critically respond to the essay statement.

references

Bostrom, Nick (2005) In Defence of Posthuman Dignity, http://www.nickbostrom.com/ethics/dignity.html (accessed 28 August 2008)

Smith, Mark K. (2005) Saving Humanity?:
Counter-arguing Posthuman Enhancement, http://jetpress.org/volume14/smith.html (accessed 20 August 2008)

Tongen, Anthony (2003) Will Biological Computers Enable Artificially Intelligent Machines to Become Persons?, http://www.cbhd.org/resources/biotech/tongen_2003-11-07_print.htm (accessed 26 August 2008)

Miah, Andy (2003) Be Very Afraid:
Cyborg Athletes, Transhuman Ideals & Posthumanity, http://www.jetpress.org/volume13/miah.html (accessed 24 August 2008)

Nalesnik, Daniel (2005) Posthumanity: Changing Our Species, http://www.comcol.umass.edu/academics/deansbookcourse/pdfs/F05Nalesnik.pdf (accessed 23 August 2008)

Guiding Question 2

Webliography
— The Limitations of the Human Body.



While examining the guiding question, the throbbing question that came to the mind was about the capability and limitations of the human body as compared to the cyborg. My first line of action was, while searching for credible online sources of information, to search the UWA library website, specifically the SuperSearch engine. I found several useful articles related to my guiding question, which served as information tool and added to my limited knowledge on cyborgs. With the help of the ‘Google Scholar’ search engine, I found several relevant articles and I was overwhelmed by what I read and was impressed with the information they had to offer.
In her manifesto, Donna Haraway mentioned that “A cyborg is a cybernetic organism, a hybrid of machine and organism, a creature of social reality as well as a creature of fiction.” While the body is totally human, a cyborg is a hybrid. This vivid distinction of the human body from the cyborg reflects the limitations of the body, that while the human body experiences pain, such features are non-prevalent in cyborgs.

In “Technologies of the gendered body”, the authors mention that “bodybuilding, coloured contact lenses, liposuction and other technological innovations” have made it possible for changes to happen to the ‘natural’ body. With technological innovations, there came about the possibility of body parts being replaced once they wear way and it also lights the hope of immortality. However, the constant fear of new viruses and diseases which may be borne to eradicate the human body is constantly behind the minds of people. The authors show a wonderful relationship of the body and technology, where the “machines assume organic functions and the body is materially redesigned through the application of newly developed technology.” The cyborg image is read in two ways: “as a coupling between a human being and an electronic or mechanical apparatus or as the identity of organisms embedded in a cybernetic information system.” Hence, while the human body has certain limitations, the cyborg body is free for these limitations and is not bounded in any form, unlike the human body. The article is clear and concise and while sticking to its title, it spells out the limitations of the human body.

This adds to the discussion by Andrea Gaggioli, Marco Vetorella and Giuseppe Riva in their article. “From Cyborgs to cyberbodies: The evolution of Techno-Body in Modern Medicine.” This paper focuses on “the ways in which the introduction of technologies in modern medicine is changing collective notions of the body.” With the advancement in technology and development of new medicine a new path is carved for intervention to the ‘naturals’ of the body. With such new ways of remaking the body, it has “contributed to reshape the notion of the body in the cultural imaginary and to foster a transformation of the collective representation of the embodiment experience.” While the article is focused on the evolution of the techno-body, the authors have cleverly argued that with cyborg modification, it is to the betterment of the physical and mental abilities of the human body.

Nicholas Gane introduced in his journal that in “this age of high technology, in which the human body is no longer tied to ‘nature’ but open to technological modification, has subsequently been termed ‘Posthuman’.” The ‘Posthuman’ is not regarded as advancement but as something that is different from human body and hence, is equated to machinery. He mentions about the current debates “from the basis of cyborg citizenship and the possibility of forging a posthuman democracy through to the politics of nature and the challenge of governing science.” He has cleverly drawn the link between the cyborg, the body and its limitations.

This links to an article from BBC news in 2001 which reveals the possibility of head transplants. It mentions that with medical technology, a transplant on the human body is possible and Professor Robert White, from Cleveland Ohio, “raised the possibility that it could be used to treat people paralysed and unable to use their limbs, and whose bodies, rather than their brains, were diseased.” This newspaper report reveals transplants to a new dimension. However, it also raises moral and ethical issues. This is an easy to read article, revealing such a possibility available in medical science.

According to Rosi Braidotti, “The cyborg, or the companion species, is a connection-making entity; a figure of interrelationality, receptivity and global communication that deliberately blurs categorical distinctions.” She mentions that we need to rethink about the human body as we compare it with the cyborg. She mentions that a “cyberteratological apparatus that scrambles the established codes and thus destabilizes the subject” is termed as “a nomadic device.” She has pointed out the connection between the cyborg and the human body where the body has high dependency on machines.

The human body has several limitations. This becomes obvious with the readings about Frankenstein, the Visible Human project and body transplants. The readings also show how the human body is fully dependent on machines, not only for medication purposes such as the MRI, but also for daily activities like driving.




References:
1)Harraway, Donna. "A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century," in Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature, New York:Routledge, 1991, p.149-181 http://www.stanford.edu/dept/HPS/Haraway/CyborgManifesto.html (accessed on 19/08/08)
2) Balsamo, Anne M. Technologies of the gendered body: Reading Cyborg Women, Duke University Press, 1999 http://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=lkr11mXPYKEC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=frankenstein+cyborg&ots=U6OcevyH9i&sig=_p6rb4vncPh-EZW9iRIrSOpSVNU#PPA5,M1 (accessed on 19/08/08)
3) Gaggioli, Andrea, Vetorella, Marco and Riva, Giuseppe. “From Cyborgs to Cyberbodies: The Evolution of the Concept of Techno-Body in Modern Medicine”,PsychNology Journal, 2003, Volume 1, Number 2, p.75 to 86 http://www.psychnology.org/File/PSYCHNOLOGY_JOURNAL_1_2_GAGGIOLI.pdf, (accessed on 19/08/08)
4) Gane, Nicholas. “Posthuman”, Theory Culture Society, 2006, Volume 23, p. 430-434 http://tcs.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/23/2-3/431.pdf
(accessed on 20/08/08)
5) Braidotti,Rosi. “Posthuman, All Too Human: Towards a New Process Ontology”, Theory Culture Society, 2006, volume 23, pg 197-208
http://tcs.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/23/7-8/197
(accessed on 20/08/08)
6) Frankenstein fears after head transplant, BBC News, 6 April 2001 http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/1263758.stm
(accessed on 20/08/08)


Footnotes:

1)Harraway, Donna, "A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century," in Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature ,New York; Routledge, 1991

2)Balsamo, Anne M. Technologies of the gendered body: Reading Cyborg Women, Duke University Press, 1999, p.1

3)Balsamo, Anne M. Technologies of the gendered body: Reading Cyborg Women, Duke University Press, 1999, p.2

4)Balsamo, Anne M. Technologies of the gendered body: Reading Cyborg Women, Duke University Press,1999, p.11

5)Gaggioli, Andrea, Vetorella, Marco and Riva, Giuseppe. “From Cyborgs to Cyberbodies: The Evolution of the Concept of Techno-Body in Modern Medicine”,PsychNology Journal, 2003, Volume 1, Number 2

6)Gaggioli, Andrea, Vetorella, Marco and Riva, Giuseppe. “From Cyborgs to Cyberbodies: The Evolution of the Concept of Techno-Body in Modern Medicine”, PsychNology Journal, 2003, Volume 1, Number 2

7)Gane, Nicholas. “Posthuman”, Theory Culture Society, 2006, Volume 23, p.432
Gane, Nicholas. “Posthuman”, Theory Culture Society, 2006, Volume 23, p.433

8)Frankenstein fears after head transplant, BBC News, 6 April, 2001
Rosi Braidotti, Posthuman, All Too Human: Towards a New Process Ontology, Theory Culture Society 2006; 23, pg 200

9)Rosi Braidotti, Posthuman, All Too Human: Towards a New Process Ontology, Theory Culture Society 2006; 23, pg202

Guiding Question 2

In the quest of finding materials online for the second question, I began by using the Google search machine. From the search results, I further inspected the sources used in the articles found and searched authors and keywords from there. I believe that a critical discussion of this question requires both sides of the argument to be shown. Hence, I searched for articles that had information related to the subject of cyborg and the human body, and then followed by articles that both agreed and opposed the notion.

Satyrs, Frankenstein, Machine Men, Cyborgs

This article, retrieved from the website called World-Information.org, has the scholarly authority of The Institute for New Culture Technologies/Public Netbase from Vienna. It essentially brings about the view that there are many known parallels between man and non-human. In the beginning of the article, the author covers when the idea of the hybrid between the two came about. This aspect of the article would be important as it provides the history of the aforementioned idea which dated back to the time of mythology. The article also provides reasons for the early depiction of ‘half-man half-machine creatures’ such as Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. It also mentions how the non-human world consists of not only ‘animal and divine worlds’ but most importantly, the world of technology. In fact, the article added that even the purist meaning of Man is unclear and is further affirmed by Darwin and Freud’s theories. These pieces of information would hence be useful for the introduction of the essay.

Lacerations: The Visible Human Project, Impossible Anatomies, and the Loss of Corporeal Comprehension

The article published in 2001 by Eugene Thacker was extracted from an online journal called the Culture Machine in the United Kingdom. It talked in depth about the Visible Human Project (VHP) and gave a thorough study on how it is usually done. Having the cadavers to be sliced in cross-sections and transferred to the digital format suggests that each part of the human body is holistic. It also covered important sub-topics such as Issues, History and Consequences regarding the digital anatomy. I would find this useful in my essay as I would be able to compare the digitalized concept of the body as compared to the perception of the regular human body. Thacker also suggested that the VHP creates an exclusive bond between ‘virtual technologies and the body’ (Thacker, 2001, Power and Body). In fact, he also analysed how the VHP brought upon a different version of ‘truth’ in regards to the anatomical body (Thacker, 2001, Power and Body).

Cyborg

Jessica Santone’s article is from the University of Chicago and is written in the winter of 2003. The article provides information and understanding of what I need to know about cyborgs. For example, it mentioned that the cyborg possesses both real and mythical aspects in its existence and pointed out that it could be used as a ‘subject position’ (Santone, 2003). Furthermore, Santone provided the intrinsic connection between Man and machine in a cyborg and how the human interrelates with technological inventions. Consequently, I am able to find out the extent of how the body can be reinterpreted other than being human. One of the important details in the article revealed that the cyborg body was deduced as to being more holistic. This would be essential in regards to the Visible Human Project mentioned in the question.

Imagining the Posthuman: Patricia Piccinini and the Art of Simulation

Kim Toffoletti is an associate lecturer in Women's Studies at Deakin University in Australia. This article was written in 2003 and was taken from the University of Western Australia’s Outskirts Online Journal archive. Toffoletti touched on the works of Australian visual artist Patricia Piccinini to branch out the idea of technoscience and reality. One important aspect of Piccinini’s digital work was of a crafted female model with an equally crafted rat resting on top of the model’s fingers. Toffoletti pointed out that with the aid of the digital imagery, the ‘interconnected biological systems of the human and animal species are made possible’ (Toffoletti, 2003). This is most relevant to my essay as I would be able to distinguish how the body is modified and viewed as something more than human when being digitalized. Toffoletti also compared the accomplished works of Donna Haraway and Paccinini whereby technological determinism was shunned in regards to the idea that machines would be a threat to the human existence. This would make a relevant point in my essay as it showed limitations of the body losing its human aspects.

Cyborgs and Moral Identity

Grant Gillett is a professor of Biomedical Ethics in University of Otago in New Zealand. He wrote this article in May 2005 derived from the Journal of Medical Ethics. It covers various fictional case studies for readers to critically assess their opinions in regards to technological enhancements such as ‘Head Injury and Neurorehabilitation’ and ‘Personal Upgrade with Micronetworks’ (Gillett, 2005). This would be useful for my essay as there are examples to analyse readers’ opinions regarding the reinterpretation of the body and its modifications. Gillett also observed the issue of what determines the human soul under the sub-header ‘What is a Human Soul?’ It covered the moral and ethical aspects of the human body and whether silicone could ever replace human flesh and blood. This would be essential to the opposing notion to the guiding question.

In conclusion, all five of the online sources provide the understanding of the cyborg manifestation and its relation to the human body. The first two articles covered both Frankenstein and the VHP in detail while ‘Cyborg’ written by Santone gave useful information and perspectives about the cyborg. The last two articles showed arguments about the human body being integrated with cyber technology and also its moral identity.

References

Gillett, Grant (2005) ‘Cyborgs and Moral Identity’ http://jme.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/32/2/79 (accessed 25 August 2008)

Santone, Jessica (2003) ‘cyborg’ http://csmt.uchicago.edu/glossary2004/cyborg.htm (accessed 25 August 2008)

Thacker, Eugene (2001) ‘Lacerations: The Visible Human Project, Impossible Anatomies, and the Loss of Corporeal Comprehension’ http://www.culturemachine.net/index.php/cm/article/viewArticle/293/278 (accessed 25 August 2008)

Toffoletti, Kim (2003) ‘Imagining the Posthuman: Patricia Piccinini and the Art of Simulation’ http://www.chloe.uwa.edu.au/outskirts/archive/volume11/toffoletti (accessed 25 August 2008)

World-Information.Org (2005) ‘Satyrs, Frankenstein, Machine Men, Cyborgs’ http://world-information.org/wio/infostructure/100437611777/100438658891 (accessed 26 August 2008)